The Issues Of The Sexual Morality Sociology Essay

The Issues Of The Sexual Morality Sociology Essay Sexual morality refers to the beliefs and practices by which a culture, group, faith, etc. regulates their members behaviour in matter of sexual activities. Many cultures and religions have rules regarding sexual behavior which they consider moral and it is said by persons in those cultures and religions that those acting outside of those rules are immoral or wrong. These rules sometimes distinguish between sexual activities that are practiced for biological reproduction (sometimes allowed only when in formal marital status and in fertile age) and other activities practiced for the pleasure of sex only (or mainly). In this sense, a concept of sexual morality can be expressed in any of the possible directions, and groups exist that recommend restrictive behaviours as well as groups that recommend totally free self-determination, as well as a variety of intermediate positions. The respective efficacy of these rules depends on the social position of the group that develops them, on its eventual political representativity, on its relationships with the laws of the related country. Views on sexual morality have varied greatly over time and from culture to culture. Usually, they derive from religious beliefs, but some writers have pointed out that social and environmental conditions play a part in the development of a given societys views on sexual morality. In Western pluralistic societies of the 20th and 21st centuries, there often exists debate on not only whether there is a common morality, but on whether it is right to expect such a common view. In most western societies, laws allowing a wide range of sexual relationships between consenting adults are the norm, although that legal range varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. The debate thus often includes a sub-argument of what is legal vs. what is moral. In previous centuries and in many non-western cultures of the 20th and 21st centuries, there has been less room for debate. This does not mean, however, that views on sexual morality have ever been homogenous. For example, in Hellenic society, homosexual behavior was often encouraged and accepted as part of the socialization and upbringing of young men, especially those in the military. These relationships were in addition to heterosexual relationships entered into for the establishment of families and the production of progeny so that property would be inherited and kept within a larger kinship group. The importance of the kin-group and the maintenance of its property was such that, under certain circumstances, Athenian law allowed an uncle to marry his niece in order to keep family property together. It could be therefore argued that the needs of the family constituted a higher morality that helped to define the sexual mores of the society as a whole. In Roman society, sexual morality concentrated more on the social status of those involved, and their taboos concentrated on high-status men committing any kind of sexual act that was thought of as passive or submissive. Providing that the sexual act was dominant in nature, and the man had a high social status Roman society made little distinction between the type of sexual partner and type of sexual act. Another example is the contrast between traditional European and traditional Asian or African views of permitted familial relationships. British law and custom, for example, frequently forbade intermarriage between those related by marriage. However, in rural regions of India, Nepal, and surrounding nations, fraternal polyandry, in which two (or more) brothers marry the same woman, is culturally accepted. Likewise, European mores generally advocate monogamy strongly. Polygamy is widely practiced by many societies throughout Asia and Africa, and polyandry is the accepted norm in a few Indian and African societies. Moreover , exual ethics (also referred to as sexual morality) refers to those aspects of ethics that deal with issues arising from all aspects of sexuality and human sexual behavior. Broadly speaking, sexual ethics relates to community and personal standards relating to the conduct of interpersonal relationships, and deals with issues of consent, sexual relations before marriage and/or while married, including issues of marital fidelity and premarital and non-marital sex, issues related to sexuality, questions about how gender and power are expressed through sexual behavior, questions about how individuals relate to society, and questions about how individual behavior impacts public health concerns. OBJECTIVES To know the reality of the world and act accordingly To have the knowledge before being affected by sexual morality To be able to care for others and know their rights To help prevent more sexual morality victims directly or indirectly EXPLANATION Sexual Morality In A Nutshell Sexual morality refers to the beliefs and practices by which a culture, group, faith, etc. regulates their members behaviour in matter of sexual activities. Many cultures and religions have a sexual morality that they would like to apply even to non adherents; sometimes force has been used in spreading concepts of morality. These rules sometimes distinguish between sexual activities that are practiced for biological reproduction (sometimes allowed only when in formal marital status and in fertile age) and other activities practiced for the pleasure of sex only (or mainly). In this sense, a concept of sexual morality can be expressed in any of the possible directions, and groups exist that recommend restrictive behaviours as well as groups that recommend totally free self-determination, as well as a variety of intermediate positions. The respective efficacy of these rules depends on the social position of the group that develops them, on its eventual political representativity, on its relationships with the laws of the related country. Views on sexual morality have varied greatly over time and from culture to culture. Usually, they derive from religious beliefs, but some writers have pointed out that social and environmental conditions play a part in the development of a given societys views on sexual morality. In Western pluralistic societies of the 20th and 21st centuries, there often exists debate on not only whether there is a common morality, but on whether it is right to expect such a common view. In most western societies, laws allowing a wide range of sexual relationships between consenting adults is the norm, although that legal range varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. The debate thus often includes a sub-argument of what is legal vs. what is moral. In previous centuries and in many non-western cultures of the 20th and 21st centuries, there has been less room for debate. This does not mean, however, that views on sexual morality have ever been homogenous. For example, in Hellenic society, homosexual behavior was often encouraged and accepted as part of the socialization and upbringing of young men, especially those in the military. These relationships were in addition to heterosexual relationships entered into for the establishment of families and the production of progeny s o that property would be inherited and kept within a larger kinship group. The importance of the kin-group and the maintenance of its property was such that, under certain circumstances, Athenian law allowed an uncle to marry his niece in order to keep family property together. It could be therefore argued that the needs of the family constituted a higher morality that helped to define the sexual mores of the society as a whole. Another example is the contrast between traditional European and traditional Asian or African views of permitted familial relationships. British law and custom, for example, frequently forbade intermarriage between those related by marriage. However, in rural regions of India, Nepal, and surrounding nations, fraternal polyandry, in which two (or more) brothers marry the same woman, is culturally accepted. Likewise, European mores generally advocate monogamy strongly. However, polygamy is a much more common social pattern worldwide, with some 80 percent of world cultures considering it acceptable. Polygyny is widely practiced by many societies throughout Asia and Africa, and polyandry is the accepted norm in a few Indian and African societies. In the United States, what many conservatives call traditional morality is held to prohibit all non-marital sex, because of the moral belief that sexual relations should occur only between husband and wife. This view of morality thus disapproves of some or all of the followingpremarital, extramarital, and homosexual relationswhether consensual or not. There are people who disagree with this traditional view. Generally they believe that sex is a natural behavior which should be only minimally restricted by legislation or other imposed moralities. Even among the most liberal views of sexual morality in the US, there is generally agreement that involving non-consenting partners (or those unable to give consent legally) in sexual relationships should be restricted and punishable under the law. Social constructions of sex continued to evolve throughout the twentieth century in Western societies. The pioneering surveys conducted by Alfred C. Kinsey and his colleagues (Kinsey et al. 1953; Kinsey, Pomeroy, and Martin 1948) found widespread premarital and extramarital sexual behavior among both men and women. This challenged the popular view that women were not interested in sex, or less interested in it than men. The work of William Masters and Virginia Johnson (1966) demonstrated that the processes of sexual arousal were similar for men and women, in contrast to the earlier view that they were different. These findings led to what has been termed the eroticization of female sexuality (Seidman 1991), the view that men and women were equally erotic. However, there are some gender differences in sexual behavior. Surveys in the United States (Smith 1991), Britain ( Johnson et al. 1994), and France (Spira et al. 1992) find that men report a larger number of sexual partners than wo men, both lifetime and in the recent past. Studies also find that men are more accepting of sexual activity in casual relationships than are women (Oliver and Hyde 1993). DISCUSSIONS Gender Discrimination In Wikipedia the definition for discrimination is given as the  prejudicial  treatment of an individual based solely on their membership (whether voluntary or involuntary) in a certain group or category. Discrimination is the  actual behavior  towards members of another group. It involves excluding or restricting members of one group from opportunities that are available to other groups.  The  United Nations  explains: Discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or rejection.  Discriminatory laws such as  redlining  have existed in many countries. In some countries, controversial attempts such as  racial quotas  have been used to redress negative effects of discrimination. The main discrimination we want to discuss is gender discrimination. The Wikipedia also defines it as the gender discrimination and sexism refers to beliefs and  attitudes  in relation to the  gender  of a person, such beliefs and attitudes are of a social nature and do not, normally, carry any legal consequences.  Sex discrimination, on the other hand, may have legal consequences. Though what constitutes sex discrimination varies between countries, the essence is that it is an adverse action taken by one person against another person that would not have occurred had the person been of another sex. Discrimination of that nature in certain enumerated circumstances is illegal in many countries. Currently, discrimination based on sex is defined as adverse action against another person, that would not have occurred had the person been of another sex. This is considered a form of  prejudice  and is illegal in certain enumerated circumstances in most countries. Sexual discrimination can arise in different contexts. For instance an employee may be discriminated against by being asked discriminatory questions during a job interview, or because an  employer  did not hire, promote or wrongfully terminated an employee based on his or her gender, or employers pay unequally based on gender. In an educational setting there could be claims that a student was excluded from an educational institution, program, opportunity, loan, student group, or scholarship due to his or her gender. In the housing setting there could be claims that a person was refused negotiations on seeking a house, contracting/leasing a house or getting a loan based on his or her gender. Another setting where there have been claims of gender discrimination is banking; for example if one is refused credit or is offered unequal loan terms based on ones gender. Another setting where there is usually gender discrimination is when one is refused to extend his or her credit, refused approval of credit/loan process, and if there is a burden of unequal loan terms based on ones gender. Socially, sexual differences have been used to justify different roles for men and women, in some cases giving rise to claims of primary and secondary roles. While there are alleged non-physical differences between men and women, major reviews of the academic literature on gender difference find only a tiny minority of characteristics where there are consistent psychological differences between men and women, and these relate directly to experiences grounded in biological difference.  However, there are also some psychological differences in regard to how problems are dealt with and emotional perceptions and reactions which may relate to hormones and the successful characteristics of each gender during longstanding roles in past primitive lifestyles. Unfair discrimination usually follows the  gender stereotyping  held by a society. The  United Nations  had concluded that women often experience a glass ceiling and that there are no societies in which women enjoy the same opportunities as men. The term glass ceiling is used to describe a perceived barrier to advancement in employment based on discrimination, especially sex discrim ination. In the  United States  in 1995, the Glass Ceiling Commission, a government-funded group, stated: Over half of all Masters degrees are now awarded to women, yet 95% of senior-level managers, of the top Fortune 1000 industrial and 500 service companies are men. Of them, 97% are white. In its report, it recommended  affirmative action, which is the consideration of an employees gender and race in hiring and promotion decisions, as a means to end this form of discrimination.  In 2008, women accounted for 51% of all workers in the high-paying management, professional, and related occupations. They outnumbered men in such occupations as public relations managers; financial managers; and human resource managers. The  Chinas leading headhunter, Chinahr.com, reported in 2007 that the average salary for white-collar men was 44,000 yuan ($6,441), compared with 28,700 yuan ($4,201) for women. The PwC research found that among FTSE 350 companies in the  United Kingdom  in 2002 almost 40% of senior management posts were occupied by women. When that research was repeated in 2007, the number of senior management posts held by women had fallen to 22%. Transgender  individuals, both male to female and female to male, often experience problems which often lead to dismissals, underachievement, difficulty in finding a job, social isolation, and, occasionally, violent attacks against them. Nevertheless, the problem of gender discrimination does not stop at trand ender individuals nor with women. Men are often the victim in certain areas of employment as men begin to seek work in office and childcare settings traditionally perceived as womens jobs. One such situation seems to be evident in a recent case concerning alleged YMCA discrimination and a Federal Court Case in Texas.  The case actually involves alleged discrimination against both men and blacks in childcare, even when they pass the same strict background tests and other standards of employment. It is currently being contended in federal court, as of fall 2009, and sheds light on how a workplace dominated by a majority (women in this case) sometimes will seemingly justify wh atever they wish to do, regardless of the law. This may be done as an effort at self-protection, to uphold traditional societal roles, or some other faulty, unethical or illegal prejudicial reasoning. Affirmative action  also leads to white men being discriminated against for entry level and blue collar positions. An employer cannot hire a white man with the same on paper qualifications over a woman or minority worker or the employer will face prosecution. The UNICEF claims on gender discrimination that birth histories and census to-date reveal an unusually high proportion of male births and male children under five in Asia, most notably in India and China, suggesting sex-selecting foeticide and infanticide in the worlds two most populous countries, despite initiatives to eradicate these practices in both countries. More than 115 million children of primary school age do not attend school. For every 100 boys not attending primary school, there are 115 girls in the same situation. Research shows that educated women are less likely to die in childbirth and more likely to send their children to school. A UNICEF survey of selected countries finds that on average, children with uneducated mothers are at least twice as likely to be out of primary school than children whose mothers attended primary school. More than 130 million women and girls alive today have been subjected to female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), which can have grave health consequences, including the failure to heal, increased susceptibility to HIV infection, childbirth complications, inflammatory diseases and urinary incontinence. The younger girls are when they first have sex, the more likely it is that intercourse has been imposed on them. According to a World Health Organisation study, 150 million girls and 73 million boys under the age of 18 experienced forced sexual intercourse or other forms of physical and sexual violence in 2002. Globally, 36 per cent of woman between the ages of 20-24 were married or in union before they reached 18. Premature pregnancy and childbirth is often a dangerous consequence of child marriage. An estimated 14 million girls between 15-19 years old give birth every year. If a mother is under 18, her babys chances of dying in the first year of life is 60 percent greater than that of a baby born to a mother over 19. Babies born to mothers under 18 are more likely to suffer from low birth weight, under nutrition and delayed physical and cognitive development. High rates of illiteracy among women prevent them from knowing about the risks of HIV infection and ways to protect themselves.  Elderly women may face double discrimination on the basis of both gender and age. Women tend to live longer than men, may lack control of family resources and can face discrimination from inheritance and property laws. This is what gender discrimination means where the male and female are discriminated in some ways. Pornography Pornography or porn is the portrayal of explicit sexual subject matter for the purposes of sexual excitement and erotic satisfaction. Pornography may use any of a variety of media, ranging from books, magazines, postcards, photos, sculpture, drawing, painting, animatio, sound recordingn, film, video, or video game. However, when sexual acts are performed for a live audience, by definition, it is not pornography, as the term applies to the depiction of the act, rather than the act itself. Thus, portrayals such as sex shows and striptease are not classified as pornography. A pornographic model poses for pornographic photographs. A pornographic actor, also called porn star, acts in pornographic films. In cases where few actor skills are required a performer in pornographic films is also called a pornographic model. Pornography has often been subject to censorship and legal restraints on publication on grounds of obscenity. Such grounds and the very definition of what is or is not pornography have differed in different historical, cultural and national contexts. Over the past few decades, an immense industry for the production and consumption of pornography has grown, with the increasing use of home video and the Internet, as well as the emergence of social attitudes more tolerant of sexual portrayals. Amateur pornography has become widely popular and generally distributed via the Internet for free. MORAL PRESPECTIVE Benefits of Safe sex Sexually transmitted diseases and unwanted pregnancies can be greatly reduced by practicing safe sex. Even thought no method of safe sex is 100% effective, it is still much better than not using any protection. The methods of protection, while not foolproof, still greatly reduce the risk of contracting a sexually transmitted disease or an unwanted pregnancy. So, if you choose to engage in sexually activity, its always important to use some form of protection. The following will outline some of the options available including abstinence and monogamy, both male and female condoms, and oral contraception. Abstinence is still the best and safest method of preventing both pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. It is 100% effective. Although it is the only foolproof method, it is not the most popular choice. The next best option if you are unwilling to practice abstinence, is to engage in sexual activities with only one person, in a monogamous relationship. A monogamous relationship means that both you and your partner engage in sexual activity with no one but each other. While monogamy is not an effective method of birth control, it does minimize the risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases. As long as both you and your partner are free of diseases and remain committed to each other, you will remain free of diseases. Abstinence and monogamy are both highly effective safe sex methods. Abstinence is effective at preventing both pregnancy and diseases while monogamy helps to prevent diseases only. The condom is one of the better methods available for avoiding sexually transmitted diseases. When theyre properly used they are also 97%-98% effective in preventing pregnancy. Male condoms are easily accessible in drug stores, grocery stores, and even vending machines. They are also inexpensive. There are male and female versions of the condom available. Male condoms are more popular. The male condom is a thin sheath, usually made of latex that fits over the penis and acts as a barrier to the exchange of bodily fluids during intercourse. Even if they arent used correctly, they are still very effective in preventing pregnancy (88%-90% effective). So even though they are effective, they are still not 100% reliable. The risk still exists, however small, of getting pregnant or contracting a sexually transmitted disease. The female condom is a polyurethane sheath that lines the entire vagina. The closed end is inserted into the vagina and the open end remains outside the body. Its been available only since the 1990s and is not as readily available at the male condom. If you can find it, you will also pay more for it, since it costs more than a male condom. It is however, just as effective as the male condom in preventing pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. There are oral contraceptives available as well that are very effective in preventing pregnancy. These however, do not protect against sexually transmitted diseases. An oral contraceptive is a pill that is taken daily which uses hormones to prevent pregnancy. If used correctly, the pill is 97-99% effective. As with any drug, there are side effects that come along with pill usage. Most of these side effects are mild. Some side effects include weight changes, nausea, irritability and breast tenderness. Even though these arent severe, they can be avoided altogether. Today there are numerous varieties of pills on the market. Talk to your doctor and find out which is best for you. Again, while oral contraceptives are effective against preventing pregnancy, they do not work against contracting sexually transmitted diseases. If you are not sure that your partner is free of disease, you should consider using another form of safe sex method as a back up to prevent these diseases. If you want to avoid pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases, it is best to take all the measure you can to practice safe sex. So while abstinence is the only 100% effective method against pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases, there are other options out there to explore that offer good benefits. Monogamy is effective in protection against sexually transmitted diseases, while condoms and birth control pills are effective against unwanted pregnancies. Safer Sex (Safe Sex) at a Glance can reduces our risk of getting a sexually transmitted disease (STD), using condoms makes vaginal or anal intercourse safer sex, using condoms or other barriers makes oral sex safer sex, having sex play without intercourse can be even safer sex, and safer sex can be very pleasurable and exciting. CONCLUSION As a conclusion the major change in the discourse about sex is the uncoupling of sex from marriage. As sexual gratification became accepted as an end in itself, people began to challenge the belief that intimate sexual activity should be limited to marriage. A liberal discourse emerged, which argued that sexual intimacy involving consenting people who are not married nor planning to marry is acceptable. In the 1970s, some argued that extramarital sexual intimacy is acceptable if the spouse approves (ONeill and ONeill 1972). This discourse led to expansion of available sexual lifestyles, including nonmarital relationships, cohabitation, and open marriage. Since the mid-1960s, in the United States and elsewhere in the West, a minority discourse has developed that separates sex from love. According to this view, engaging in sexual intimacy for physical pleasure, or to express affection for ones partner, is legitimate. This discourse is the basis of a best-selling sexual advice book of the 1970s, The Joy of Sex (Comfort 1972), and its sequel, The New Joy of Sex (Comfort 1991). This discourse views male and female as essentially equal in sexual potential and in the right to sexual gratification. It challenges the double standard that sexual intimacy outside marriage or a committed relationship is acceptable for men but not for women. This discourse is consistent with the view that sex need not be limited to heterosexual couples. Thus, it facilitated the movement toward acceptance of casual heterosexual and homosexual contacts and living in committed gay and lesbian relationships. The most visible change in the United States and other Western cultures since the mid-1970s is the increasing explicitness of public discourse about sexuality. Explicit sexual representations are found in newspapers, magazines, novels, and films. The individuals desire for sexual fulfillment is used to sell lipstick, colognes, beer, clothing, travel, and automobiles. Personal advertisements, singles magazines, and dating services cater to the desire to find the (nearly) perfect spouse or the perfect sexual partner. The sex industry provides lubricants, vibrators, erotic clothing, and explicit videos to people seeking sexual fulfillment. Thus, stimuli associated with arousal are almost everywhere, creating a culture in which the sexual is ever-present. This sexualization of the culture undoubtedly contributes to the occurrence of sexual activity in places and among persons formerly prohibited.

Key Points presented by Philosophers in the 17th Century

IntroductionREALLY, should it not be the purpose of a government to work for the benefit of its subjects? The well-known American George Washington said that â€Å"the happiness of society,† that is, of the people, â€Å"is, or ought to be, the end [the objective] of all government.† Over the centuries, humankind has lived under hundreds of governments. None have truly satisfied the needs of all the people.Whatever the complaints made, however, the fact remains that some sort of government is clearly better than no government at all. Without government there would be no order; it would be no less than mob rule. And if you have ever seen a mob in action you know what that would mean—for in a mob people take the opportunity to vent hatred, greed and viciousness, feeling that no one will identify them for punishment.However, despite of all the disappointments brought about by the human government to the society through the threads of history, philosophers from the o lden times up until the present era still believes that the human society could not exist in an organized manner without the existence of a concrete government in authority.  In this regard, it is thus essential for the present generation to know the vitality of the philosophies presented by the 17th up until the 21st century philosophers and how much important they are with regards to the political systems existing in the human society todayAmong the well-known philosophers to be discussed herein are Rene Descartes, Karl Marx, Thomas Hobbes Leviathan, John Locke, Voltaire Candide, Jean Jacques Rousseau, and Montesquieu. These philosophers are most likely agreeing on one theme with regards to their belief of the present situation of the human society and tits need of having a government to rule over its concerns. In this regard, an analysis would be very beneficial to understand the theories and philosophies formulated by the people mentioned above.The PhilosophiesRene Descartes b elieves that in many ways, the human society is in dire need of a government to rule over its activities. According to him, it is indeed naturally innate in humans that they are able to solve and face the challenges they are supposed to meet everyday. The fact that they are capable of speculating on the things that might happen through simple application of theories, humans are indeed capable of solving social issues they face. However, it is also evident in his philosophy that to be able to create the necessary solutions for certain problems, it is important for humans to attain guidance from a higher sort of authority. This is where a government enters the scenario, which is ought to give guidance to the society on how they are supposed to deal with the numerous problems that occur in the society every now and then.Karl Marx on the other end refers to governments as a source of social strength. In his philosophy on the communist manifesto, he states that the idea of communism to  produce socialism is an important factor in helping the human society to progress through their works. According to him, the factual effect of communism to many countries using the said type of government as a means of ruling the territories they organize. It is through this way of governance that the authorities are able to favor the abilities placed by the workers in contributing to the economy of the entire country.Still regarding politics, Thomas Hobbes Leviathan states in his philosophy that men, when left alone are naturally lovers of violence. They are naturally involved in fights and chaos. However, an existing government designed to help the human generations deal with the conflicts they have against each other, then such conflicts are possible of being solved. The laws prepared and implicated by the human governments help so much in making it possible for the human society to be well organized thus giving humans the chance to control their emotions and reactions towards several conflicts that they are involved with.John Locke on the other hand agrees with the idea of Thomas Hobbes. He believes that through the existence of empiricism, the human civilization would become more organized. He states in his philosophy that the main goal of every government is to establish a certain level of organization within the human society. Aside from this, it is indeed beneficial that the governments help the society to learn the needs and the essential factors contributed by law to the lives of the population of people making up the society. With this, cooperation between each subject within the territories ruled by the government could be established well.John Locke further adds that in many ways, a human government is able to emphasize the need for each person to pursue what they believe is true. Certainly, through the existence of ‘tabula rasa’, which refers to the natural rights of humans, the governments are able to deal with the problems caused by the social conflicts in a better and organized manner.Voltaire Candide meanwhile talks about the utopia of the human generation. According to him, the regular exercise of humans of their right to speak of their minds helps in making a better government. The ability of humans to speak out their minds and the rights that are connected with it constantly helps in making more reliable and practical laws and regulations for the society. Certainly, the constant practice of this right is believed by Candide to be a key source to social development.Jean Jacques Rousseau of the philosophy on Social Contract on the other hand makes a clear point in stating that humans are naturally good, however, because of the government and the environment around them, they become rude and are influenced to do otherwise than what is accepted good. To him, government is a factor of the society that must be constantly controlled by the people since the people placed the government in authority. To him, th e exercise of democracy is the key factor to social success.Regarding the existence of a democratic government, Montesquieu agrees that the present systems used by the European governments, having been able to divide the rulership or authoritative power into three major sectors is among the most progressive  innovation there ever was in the human government. In this regard, it is thus expected to be effective enough in leading the human civilization to a progressive future.ConclusionA peaceful, prosperous and happy world that is what people everywhere long for. Not just humility, but reality and honesty oblige us to admit that it is because all men are imperfect that they are not capable of dealing with the necessary needs of having a true reliable government. The fault lies, not just with those who rule, but also with those who are ruled. True, Instant communication and fast transportation have â€Å"shrunk† the size of the world, so that there is an interlocking of intere sts, and no nation can be an isolated, totally independent unit. What happens in one place affects people everywhere else.Governments can make some minor moves to adjust matters and make conditions a little better for the people. However, such help proves to be only superficial and temporary. As the philosophers discussed in this paper states, the existence of a fine government lies upon the capability of the people to cooperate and be in submission to the laws created by the authorities to attain a social Utopia.BIBLIOGRAPHYSteven M. Cahn. (1998). Classics of Political and Moral Philosophy.Oxford University Press, USA.

Confidentiality Notes

Ethical theories and principles that are related to confidentiality are- confidentiality is one of the most basic principles in health care practice and it is the most long-standing ethical dictum in health care codes of ethics. It is the practice of keeping harmful, shameful, or embarrassing patient information within proper bounds. The right to privacy gives legal standing to this ethical principle. ). a reliable test for who among team members should be given certain types of information is need to know basis.It is necessary for one to adequately perform ones specific job responsibilities- meaning that by giving the information does it provide the adequate caring response that is required for the patient) Immediate aims of confidentiality are to: 1. Facilitate the sharing of sensitive information with the goal of helping the patient 2. Exclude unauthorized people from such information 3. Discern need to know information from mere interest when deciding what to share.Confidentialit y serves as one cornerstone for the solid foundation of a trusting health professional-patient relationship that should be built AMA principles of medical ethics states that:- a physician shall respect the rights of patients, of colleagues and of other health professionals and shall safeguard patient confidences within the constrains of the law. This provides a conflict when a physician knows that some secret may be harmful for the patient and yet are bound to keep it.Breaking Confidence- Legal exceptions to the standard of practice that confidences must be kept, except with the patient’s consent or at the patient’s request to break it include * An emergency in which keeping the confidence will harm the patient * Patient is incompetent or incapacitated and a third party needs to be informed for decision making for the patient * Third parties are at a risk for harm (eg. Sexually transmitted diseases, child or other abuses) * Request for commitment or hospitalization of a psychiatrically ill patient * A serious risk that any others may be harmed (a terrorist threat) Eventually breaking of confidence always enlists at least one harm and for health professionals it is to minimize the harm 6 step process in confidentiality situations 1. Step 1- Gather relevant information- 2. Step 2 &3- identify the type of ethical problem and the ethics approach to analyze it 3. Step 4- Explore the practical alternatives 4. Step5- Complete the action 5. Step 6- Evaluate the process and outcomeEthical principles or elements that support confidentiality are * Beneficence * Nonmaleficence or fidelity * Right to autonomy Key character trait is trustworthiness kindness, compassion, and courage to help with the challenging situations. Patient care information systems (PCIS)- is a computerized systems of record of patients that are permanently kept in an electronic form Health information managers- (also known as the gatekeepers of medical records) are key members of the he alth care team.Their primary role is the responsibility for designing and maintaining the system that facilitates the collection, use and dissemination of health and medical information. They ensure that the medical records are correct and kept in privacy and are only given to the health professionals that have the right to see them. They ensure that the records are not abused or released to unauthorized persons. Medical record is an extremely useful document for the health professionals * Can be found both in paper and electronic form They are systematic accounts of a patient’s encounter with a health provider * They serve as a repository of information * Generated by and contributed to by many providers in various health delivery settings * EHR- Electronic health record is an electronic record of patient health information, they often include patient demographics, progress notes, problems, medications, relevant social history, medical history, vital signs, laboratory data a nd diagnostic reports guidelines that are applicable when recording patient information 1. Questionable information should be clearly labeled as questionable 2. True information that is not relevant to should not be recorded 3. All information should be handled among health professionals with regard for the privacy and dignity of patients Confidentiality finally comes down to each professional being vigilant about the flow of patient information, guided by the goal of using information to help the patient.Patient privacy- Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996 * This act imposed considerable new constraints on the use and disclosure of a patient’s personal clinical information * Major goal of HIPAA is to ensure that an individual’s health information is properly protected while allowing the glow of information needed to promote high-quality care * This set of regulations are called the New Federal Medical Privacy Rule- basic intent is to co ntrol the use or disclosure of â€Å"protected health information† * One area that this rule strongly affects is the handling of information for purposes of research.It has also been interpreted to mean that information about patients (including family members) cannot be released * A â€Å"covered entity† is defined as a health plan, data processing company, health care professional, or hospital The Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act- * Parts of this act expanded and strengthened the privacy laws that protect patient health information originally outlined under HIPAA. Provides additional provisions regarding privacy and security breaches, reporting of breaches, accounting of disclosures, restrictions of disclosures for sales and marketing purposes, and monetary penalties associates with HIPAA violations.

Francis Bacons Classic Essay of Studies

Francis Bacon, the first major English essayist, comments forcefully in Of Studies on the value of reading, writing,  and learning. Notice Bacons reliance on parallel structures (in particular, tricolons) throughout this concise, aphoristic  essay. Then, compare the essay to Samuel Johnsons treatment of the same theme more than a century later in On Studies. The Life of Francis Bacon Francis Bacon is considered a Renaissance man. He worked as a lawyer and scientist throughout his life (1561-1626.)  Bacons most valuable work surrounded philosophical and Aristotelian concepts that supported the scientific method. Bacon served as an Attorney General as well as Lord Chancellor of England and received his education from several universities including Trinity College and the University of Cambridge. Bacon has written over 50 essays beginning with Of in the title and following the concept, such as Of Truth, Of Atheism and Of Discourse. A few interesting facts about Bacon: Bacons uncle was the Lord Keeper for Queen Elizabeth I. He helped symbolize the approvals for key documents.He is known as the father of the scientific method which was influenced by his own Baconian method based on reason and observation.There are rumors that Bacon was mostly attracted to men, due to his late marriage in life, amongst other ​theories. Interpretations of Of Study Bacons essay expresses several comments in Of Studies that can be interpreted as the following: Studying is helpful for better understanding and provides a knowledge that develops experience, as well as  a character that grows.Reading provides delight and fun, ornament and showing off, and the ability for success.Bacon expanded upon different fields of study depending on ones goal; for example, to master clarity with language, study poetry. Of Studies Excerpt by Francis Bacon* Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief use for delight is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in the judgment and disposition of business. For expert men can execute, and perhaps judge of particulars, one by one; but the general counsels, and the plots and marshalling of affairs, come best from those that are learned. To spend too much time in studies is sloth; to use them too much for ornament, is affectation; to make judgment wholly by their rules, is the humor of a scholar. They perfect nature, and are perfected by experience: for natural abilities are like natural plants, that need pruning, by study; and studies themselves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience. Crafty men condemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them; for they teach not their own use; but that is a wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation. Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy, and extracts made of them by others; but that would be only in the less important arguments, and the meaner sort of books, else distilled books are like common distilled waters, flashy things. Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. And therefore, if a man write little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little, he had need have a present wit: and if he read little, he had need have much cunning, to seem to know that he doth not. Histories make men wise; poets witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric a ble to contend. Abeunt studia in mores [Studies pass into and influence manners]. Nay, there is no stone or impediment in the wit but may be wrought out by fit studies; like as diseases of the body may have appropriate exercises. Bowling is good for the stone and reins; shooting for the lungs and breast; gentle walking for the stomach; riding for the head; and the like. So if a man’s wit be wandering, let him study the mathematics; for in demonstrations, if his wit be called away never so little, he must begin again. If his wit be not apt to distinguish or find differences, let him study the Schoolmen; for they are cymini sectores [splitters of hairs]. If he be not apt to beat over matters, and to call up one thing to prove and illustrate another, let him study the lawyers’ cases. So every defect of the mind may have a special receipt. * Bacon published three editions of his essays (in 1597, 1612, and 1625) and the last two were marked by the addition of more essays. In many cases, they became expanded works from earlier editions. This is the best-known  version of the essay Of Studies, taken from the 1625 edition of  Essays or Counsels, Civil and Moral. Below, for the sake of comparison, is the version from the first edition (1597). Studies serve for pastimes, for ornaments, for abilities; their chief use for pastimes is in privateness and retiring; for ornaments in discourse; and for ability in judgment; for expert men can execute, but learned men are more fit to judge and censure. To spend too much time in them is sloth; to use them too much for ornament is affectation; to make judgment wholly by their rules is the humor of a scholar; they perfect nature, and are themselves perfected by experience; crafty men contemn them, wise men use them, simple men admire them; for they teach not their use, but that there is a wisdom without them and above them won by observation. Read not to contradict nor to believe, but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested: that is, some are to be read only in parts, others to be read but curiously, and some few to be read wholly with diligence and attention. Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready, and writing an exact man; therefore, if a man write little, he had need of a great memory; if he confer little, he had need of a present wit; and if he read little, he had need have much cunning to seem to know that he doth not know. Histories make wise men; poets witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend.